Kamis, 27 September 2007

Latex Generation

Latex Generation

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Latex Generation was a New York, USA punk rock band formed in the early 1990s. The name was inspired by a news report heard on the radio by bassist and original founding member, Tommy Rockstar, that spoke of the current generation of teens and the threat of STDs, especially the AIDS epidemic. The band of young high-schoolers (at that time) agreed to the name "Latex Generation" instead of an earlier name "The Dead Cat Lickers". They are also referred to as "L8XG" or just "LG". They went on to release 2 full-length CDs, 3 7" records, a number of compilation album contributions and toured around the world. They are currently disbanded.

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[edit] The Early Years (1990-1992)

The founding members were:

  • Paul Fort (guitar)
  • Mike Hobbs (drums)
  • Tommy Rockstar (bass)

The first performances were at high school functions at Wheatley High in East Williston, NY (where Paul & Hobbs attended). No Frontman was available at this point so good friends/family members took the stage with the band. (Ali Hobbs & Ali Redmond) The band soon added James Simpson on guitar to fill out the live sound. However, Simpson's role wih the band was short lived due to personality clashes with the other members.

Soon after this, vocalist Matt Small was recruited. Matt fronted the band for a few shows, including one at Long Island's HammerHedz, the Vault in Queens (NYC), & the Wheatley High School's Battle of the Bands. The Wheatley battle of the band's show incited a mosh pit that brought the show to a halt twice and lead to the school principal ejecting the band's fans, which lead to a disappointing loss in the contest. The band realized that Matt's singing style didn't fit their style so his stint as lead singer ended rather quickly.

After several unsuccessful auditions, the band approached Joseph Nienstedt, the guitarist for another local band called "Old Motor Parkway". Joe became the new singer for the band and they immediately began working on original songs. Among the early originals were: "Out on the Run", "Bitch Factory", and "Edicius". The band started to play regular shows throughout Long Island and Queens and even won the Herricks High School Battle of the Bands.

The line-up was as follows:

  • Paul Fort (guitars)
  • Mike Hobbs (drums)
  • Tommy Rockstar (bass guitars)
  • Joseph Nienstedt (vocals)

[edit] Recording Session #1

Latex Generation recorded a demo entitled Loser with local producer Steve Ronsen. The six song demo included:

  1. Myself
  2. Funky Green Carpet
  3. Not a Crime
  4. Whore
  5. Grow
  6. FCC

[edit] The Middle Years (1993-1996)

The band became actively involved in the Long Island/Queens Punk/Hardcore scene which was centered around the popular club "The Angle" (Mineola, New York). These club appearances lead to the band signing with indie label Motherbox Records. Motherbox helped fund and distribute the band's first 7" record entitled "Bored" (1993).

[edit] Recording Session #2

Bored

The Bored 7" was recorded by Steve Ronsen at Buzz Productions. Songs Included:

  1. PB&J
  2. Home
  3. Bored
  4. Two Faces

The song "Two Faces" featured Joe playing guitar alongside Paul for the first time. Impressed with the results of the session, the band decided a role shift would benefit everyone involved. So, Joe took on the lead guitar role allowing Paul to concentrate on lead vocals.

In an attempt to broaden their fan base, the band purchased a van and worked hard expanding their influence into New Jersey and Pennsylvania. These shows lead to strong relationships with bands such as Weston (band), Bouncing Souls, Plow United, Nooner & Grady . During this time, the band tightened up and headed back to the studio.

[edit] Recording Session #3

I Killed The President

The I Killed the President 7" was recorded by Steve Ronsen at Buzz Productions. Songs Included:

  1. Fuck Me, I'm a Rockstar
  2. Delivery Boy
  3. I Killed the President

With two 7" records to their credit, the band grew more ambitious. Longer tours were now being organized throughout the Northeast and larger groups of fans were attending shows. The band's buzz grew with each month and requests were coming in from minor labels to provide new songs for upcoming compilations. At the same time, the group continued it's DIY philosophy by silk-screening their own t-shirts, buttons, and patches.

[edit] Recording Session #4

Although the band was satisfied with the early home studio recordings done at Buzz Studios, they felt it was time to record in a more professional environment. They were introduced to engineer/producer Steve Meyer in 1995 and recorded four songs for upcoming compilations.

Known as the Steve Meyer sessions, it included the following songs:

  1. Daddy Was a Communist
  2. I'm Not You
  3. The Theme from TV's The Jeffersons (Cover)
  4. Runaround Sue (Cover)

Latex was now playing shows with larger bands in the NYC punk scene. This paid off in a big way after playing a sold out show supporting CA's No Use For a Name at the Wetlands in NYC. Soon after, the band was approached by a New Zealand based record label called "Onefoot Records", with whom they signed a worldwide recording and distribution contract.

[edit] Recording Session #5

360

The 360 CD & LP was recorded by Steve Meyer and included all new recordings of the following songs:

  1. Central America
  2. Daddy Was a Communist
  3. They Killed the Radio
  4. 360
  5. Delivery Boy
  6. PB&J
  7. 3 Years After
  8. Fuck Me, I'm a Rockstar
  9. I'm Not You
  10. I Killed the President
  11. Bazooka
  12. Fallen Angel (with hidden track "Sgt. Thrasher" afterwards)

Latex Generaion then organized it's most ambitious tour to date. With record label backing and a new CD to promote, the band embarked on a seven week US tour. The band continued its DIY work ethic by making almost all of their own merchandise, booking shows, advertising, and managing themselves. This required a monumental effort and put a strain on the relationships between members.

[edit] The Later Years (1997-1999)

After returning from their tour in support of 360˚, the band brought on new friend Hugo Lowbrow as a 2nd guitar player. When drummer Mike Hobbs & singer Paul Fort left for college in the fall, the group looked on it as a much needed break from band tensions/pressures. However, the distance between members only fueled the existing fires, and, after much debate, Tom & Joe finally decided it was better to move on and replaced Hobbs with Hugo Lowbrow as their new drummer. Soon after, Paul Fort would leave the band, changing the face of the line-up as well as the sound of the band.

The remaining members tried out various frontmen to take the role of Paul, but, unsurprisingly, no one suitable was found. Joseph Nienstedt eventually reclaimed the lead singer position he occupied when the band was first formed. The band continued touring under the name "Latex Generation", now with the following members:

  • Joseph Nienstedt: Vocals/Guitar
  • Tommy Rockstar: Bass
  • Hugo Lowbrow: Drums

With a full catalog of music, the band got back on the road playing alongside Florida's Ska/Punk kings Less Than Jake on an impromptu East Coast tour. They soon recorded some new material for a new 7" single, as well as a few tracks for their follow up record to 360˚.

The band members had changed, and so did their sound. In a final transition from old to new, the band changed studio engineers again.

[edit] Recording Session #6

Whatever Happened to PJ Soles?

During the Eric Rachel sessions (Tracks East Studios, NJ) they recorded the following songs:

For the Whatever Happened to PJ Soles? 7"

  1. Whatever Happened to PJ Soles?
  2. Come Along Sorry Ass, We're Going Places (which also appeared on "Boysrock")

For compilation records:

  1. 21 (of age) (which also appeared on "Boysrock" and the "Boysrock Sampler" cassette)
  2. Cycle (which also appeared on "Boysrock" and the "Boysrock Sampler" cassette)
  3. Holiday Road (which was never released)

Overseas

With heavy support from their record label, Latex Generation embarked on their first international tour to Europe with label-mates, Radio Baghdad. The tour was a gritty, yet successful endeavor, playing to a foreign "grass roots" audience which varied from city to city, and included performances at venues such as at government-supported squat houses, indoor pools, night clubs, disco-techs, farms, army camps, and more. Some highlights from the tour included nightly "jams" with tour-mates RadioBaghdad, who often covered rock classics such as '99 Red Balloons' (sung in German and English) and 'Stepping Stone'. The tour would help give the band memorable expriences that would later materialize in song-form on their next record.

Latex Genreation was featured in video documentary filmed during that tour (European release only) and some material was recorded for the documentary appeared in a short video clip on their "Boysrock" CD.

Upon returning from the European tour, L8XG parted ways with Hugo Gasc (who remained a close friend and played an occasional show with them as a guitarist) due to his commitment to his own band Desperosity. L8XG began to audition new drummers and found a drummer named Jay who played their first Vans Warped Tour shows as well as a nationwide tour with the band Whatever?. However, the band did not have the same chemistry achieved with Hugo, so they parted ways with Jay on good terms, with Jay going on to play with other groups - most notably, Long Island's wildly successful hardcore outfit Bayside . Ensuing auditions produced drummer Brian Alien. To make up for lost time, the band immediately began writing for a new record and went back to Tracks East in NJ to lay down what would be "Boysrock", their second CD.

The lineup for Boysrock was as follows:

  • Joseph Nienstedt (Vocals/Guitar)
  • Tommy Rockstar (Bass)
  • Brian Alien (aka: Alien) (Drums)

Latex Generation was a completely different band by the time they recorded Boysrock. They had been through numerous line-up changes and had matured greatly since the early days. The end result was a record that sounded nothing like their previous recordings. Fans of the older material had mixed reactions to the shift in style demonstrated on Boysrock and the band found themselves playing less and less of the old material live. The recording showed the bands versatility & passion, and has since become regarded as their "Pet Sounds".

[edit] Recording Session #7

Boysrock

The songs that appeared on Boysrock Latex Generation's 2nd CD, were:

  1. Laugh It Off
  2. 6th Sense
  3. 21 (of age) (recorded with Hugo on drums from the previous session)
  4. Cycle (recorded with Hugo on drums from the previous session)
  5. Tank Stellar
  6. One For the Bastards
  7. Come Along Sorry Ass, We're Going Places (recorded with Hugo on drums from the previous session)
  8. Ilona Stanley's Response
  9. Inspiration on TV
  10. Desperosity ( with Jessica Mills on Saxophone - formerly of Less than Jake)
  11. Mac ( with Jessica Mills on Saxophone - formerly of Less than Jake, this song was written by Patrick Walsh)
  12. Campsite 54

Other songs recorded during that session (but not included on the album) include:

  1. Closed Casket (pulled from Boysrock at the last minute and later commercially released on a Onefoot Records CD Compilation)
  2. Trash (with Hugo Lowbrow on lead vocals and rhythm guitar)

After they recorded Boysrock, the band performed relentlessly on a variety of short tours in the US, including a slot on a tour supporting The Bouncing Souls, a tour with Pennsylvania's Digger, and a string of dates on the Vans Warped Tour in the US. They headed to a studio in South Carolina to record 2 songs for the record label Fast Music that were to appear on a split 7" record with the band Digger. The 7" never came to fruition, but one of the songs was released on a compilation for the label Fast Music.

[edit] Recording Session #8

Fastmusic Compilation

The Columbia, SC sessions included the following songs:

  1. Undependant (released on the Fast Music Compilation)
  2. The Best Revenge (never commercially released)

[edit] The Final Year

After years of relentless hardwork, touring and self-promotion, L8XG was offered a slot on the Australian leg of the 1998 Van's Warped Tour. The feat was considered to be one of the bands crowning achievements, as they were asked to play the main stage of the tour, alongside fellow acts such as Suicidal Tendencies, Less Than Jake, the Deftones, MxPx, 22 Jacks, Cherry Poppin' Daddies, HepCat, Pennywise, Area 7, GrinSpoon, Frenzal Rhomb, Unwriiten Law and many more.

The tour, which spanned the month of January 1999 (even though it was the '98 Warped Tour, the tour lasted until January) , provided the band the luxury of reaching out to large audiences on a daily basis (sometimes performing in front of 15,000 people a day). While the tour was truly unforgettable for the trio (having made new and life-long friends while there overseas), the band also began to see signs of disdain and fatigue from each other.

Upon return, Latex Generation was offered what would be their last tour, supporting pop-punk legends Lagwagon (Fat Wreck Chords) and Colorado punk icons ALL. The tour proved to be wildly successful for L8XG and helped to further widen the groups growing audience, especially along the East Coast.

Shortly after, singer Joseph Nienstedt got married. At the same time, the band was having certain difficulties with drummer Brian Alien, in addition to other matters. Shortly thereafter, Brian Alien and Latex Generation decided to split ways. They have since rekindled their friendship and have remained friendly over the years, with Alien going on to join various other projects, such as Today is the Day, Disassociate, and even a stint with Kiss Army.

Meanwhile, life was changing for Joe who was expecting his first child, while Tommy Rockstar was getting set starting his own t-shirt printing business. Years and years of trials and tribulations in the underground music scene began to take its toll on the two remaining original members. By the summer of 1999, the two decided to put the band 'on hold indefinitely' and the band has remain so ever since.

[edit] Reunions

  • In December of 2004, Joe, Tommy & Hugo got together at a party for friends in Long Island City, NYC to play a song for their friends. It was the song "21 (of age)".
  • In December of 2006, Latex Generation reunited for a pair of shows with an also reunited Weston (band) in New york and Pennsylvania. Latex Generation's lineup for these shows included Joe, Tommy, & Hugo as well as former roadie Brian Gallagher on 2nd guitar. The dates were 12/30/06 at Rebel in NYC and 12/31/06 at Crocodile Rock in Allentown, PA. Some of the performances can be viewed on the Latex Generation Channel on YouTube.com.

[edit] Digital Music Releases

In late 2006, Latex Generation released digital download-only versions of their 2 full length studio recordings "360°" & "Boysrock". Entitled "360° (Special Edition)" and "Boysrock (Special Edition)", the 2 collections feature B-Sides and rarities previously unavailable commercially.

The Track Listings are as follows:

[edit] 360° (Special Edition)

  1. Central America
  2. Daddy Was a Communist
  3. They Killed the Radio
  4. 360
  5. Delivery Boy
  6. PB&J
  7. 3 Years After
  8. Fuck Me, I'm a Rockstar
  9. I'm Not You
  10. I Killed the President
  11. Bazooka
  12. Fallen Angel (with the hidden track "Sgt. Thrasher" afterwards)
  13. Daddy Was a Communist (Demo)
  14. I'm Not You (Demo)
  15. Runaround Sue
  16. The Jeffersons
  17. PB&J (Original Version Remix)

[edit] Boysrock (Special Edition)

  1. Laugh It Off
  2. 6th Sense
  3. 21 (of age)
  4. Cycle
  5. Tank Stellar
  6. One For the Bastards
  7. Come Along Sorry Ass, We're Going Places
  8. Ilona Stanley's Response
  9. Inspiration on TV
  10. Desperosity
  11. Closed Casket
  12. Mac
  13. Campsite 54
  14. Whatever Happened to PJ Soles?
  15. Holiday Road

The Special Editions are only available on digital download services worldwide such as iTunes, Rhapsody, Napster, & more.

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Computer simulation

Computer simulation

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It has been suggested that simulation software be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
This article is about computer modeling within a scientific medium. For artistic usage, see 3d modeling.

A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a computer program that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system. Computer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modelling of many natural systems in physics (Computational Physics), chemistry and biology, human systems in economics, psychology, and social science and in the process of engineering new technology, to gain insight into the operation of those systems. Traditionally, the formal modeling of systems has been via a mathematical model, which attempts to find analytical solutions to problems which enables the prediction of the behaviour of the system from a set of parameters and initial conditions. Computer simulations build on, and are a useful adjunct to purely mathematical models in science, technology and entertainment.

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[edit] History

Computer simulation was developed hand-in-hand with the rapid growth of the computer, following its first large-scale deployment during the Manhattan Project in World War II to model the process of nuclear detonation. It was a simulation of 12 hard spheres using a Monte Carlo algorithm. Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitution for, modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible. There are many different types of computer simulation; the common feature they all share is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all possible states of the model would be prohibitive or impossible. Computer models were initially used as a supplement for other arguments, but their use later became rather widespread.

[edit] Data preparation

The data input/output for the simulation can be either through formatted textfiles or a pre- and postprocessor.

[edit] Types of computer simulation

Computer models can be classified according to several criteria including:

For example:

  • Steady-state models use equations defining the relationships between elements of the modelled system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are often used in simulating physical systems, as a simpler modelling case before dynamic simulation is attempted.
  • Dynamic simulations model changes in a system in response to (usually changing) input signals.
  • Stochastic models use random number generators to model chance or random events; they are also called Monte Carlo simulations.
  • A discrete event simulation (DES) manages events in time. Most computer, logic-test and fault-tree simulations are of this type. In this type of simulation, the simulator maintains a queue of events sorted by the simulated time they should occur. The simulator reads the queue and triggers new events as each event is processed. It is not important to execute the simulation in real time. It's often more important to be able to access the data produced by the simulation, to discover logic defects in the design, or the sequence of events.
  • A continuous dynamic simulation performs numerical solution of differential-algebraic equations or differential equations (either partial or ordinary). Periodically, the simulation program solves all the equations, and uses the numbers to change the state and output of the simulation. Applications include flight simulators, simulation games, chemical process modeling, and simulations of electrical circuits. Originally, these kinds of simulations were actually implemented on analog computers, where the differential equations could be represented directly by various electrical components such as op-amps. By the late 1980s, however, most "analog" simulations were run on conventional digital computers that emulate the behavior of an analog computer.
  • A special type of discrete simulation which does not rely on a model with an underlying equation, but can nonetheless be represented formally, is agent-based simulation. In agent-based simulation, the individual entities (such as molecules, cells, trees or consumers) in the model are represented directly (rather than by their density or concentration) and possess an internal state and set of behaviors or rules which determine how the agent's state is updated from one time-step to the next.
  • distributed models run on a network of interconnected computers, possibly through the Internet. Simulations dispersed across multiple host computers like this are often referred to as "distributed simulations". There are several standards for distributed simulation, including Aggregate Level Simulation Protocol (ALSP), Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS), the High Level Architecture (HLA) and the Test and Training Enabling Architecture (TENA).

[edit] Computer simulation in science

Generic examples of types of computer simulations in science, which are derived from an underlying mathematical description:

Specific examples of computer simulations follow:

  • statistical simulations based upon an agglomeration of a large number of input profiles, such as the forecasting of equilibrium temperature of receiving waters, allowing the gamut of meteorological data to be input for a specific locale. This technique was developed for thermal pollution forecasting .
  • agent based simulation has been used effectively in ecology, where it is often called individual based modeling and has been used in situations for which individual variability in the agents cannot be neglected, such as population dynamics of salmon and trout (most purely mathematical models assume all trout behave identically).
  • computer simulations have also been used to formally model theories of human cognition and performance, e.g. ACT-R
  • Computational fluid dynamics simulations are used to simulate the behaviour of flowing air, water and other fluids. There are one-, two- and three- dimensional models used. A one dimensional model might simulate the effects of water hammer in a pipe. A two-dimensional model might be used to simulate the drag forces on the cross-section of an aeroplane wing. A three-dimensional simulation might estimate the heating and cooling requirements of a large building.
  • An understanding of statistical thermodynamic molecular theory is fundamental to the appreciation of molecular solutions. Development of the Potential Distribution Theorem (PDT) allows one to simplify this complex subject to down-to-earth presentations of molecular theory.

Notable, and sometimes controversial, computer simulations used in science include: Donella Meadows' World3 used in the Limits to Growth, James Lovelock's Daisyworld and Thomas Ray's Tierra.

[edit] Simulation environments for physics and engineering

Graphical environments to design simulations have been developed. Special care was taken to handle events (situations in which the simulation equations are not valid and have to be changed). The open project Open Source Physics was started to develop reusable libraries for simulations in Java, together with Easy Java Simulations, a complete graphical environment that generates code based on these libraries.

[edit] Pitfalls in computer simulation

Although sometimes ignored in computer simulations, it is very important to perform sensitivity analysis to ensure that the accuracy of the results are properly understood. For example, the probabilistic risk analysis of factors determining the success of an oilfield exploration program involves combining samples from a variety of statistical distributions using the Monte Carlo method. If, for instance, one of the key parameters (i.e. the net ratio of oil-bearing strata) is known to only one significant figure, then the result of the simulation might not be more precise than one significant figure, although it might (misleadingly) be presented as having four significant figures.

[edit] Computer simulation in practical contexts

Computer simulations are used in a wide variety of practical contexts, such as:

The reliability and the trust people put in computer simulations depends on the validity of the simulation model, therefore verification and validation are of crucial importance in the development of computer simulations. Another important aspect of computer simulations is that of reproducibility of the results, meaning that a simulation model should not provide a different answer for each execution. Although this might seem obvious, this is a special point of attention in stochastic simulations, where random numbers should actually be semi-random numbers. An exception to reproducibility are human in the loop simulations such as flight simulations and computer games. Here a human is part of the simulation and thus influences the outcome in a way that is hard if not impossible to reproduce exactly.

Computer graphics can be used to display the results of a computer simulation. Animations can be used to experience a simulation in real-time e.g. in training simulations. In some cases animations may also be useful in faster than real-time or even slower than real-time modes. For example, faster than real-time animations can be useful in visualizing the buildup of queues in the simulation of humans evacuating a building. Furthermore, simulation results are often aggregated into static images using various ways of scientific visualization.

In debugging, simulating a program execution under test (rather than executing natively) can detect far more errors than the hardware itself can detect and, at the same time, log useful debugging information such as instruction trace, memory alterations and instruction counts. This technique can also detect buffer overflow and similar "hard to detect" errors as well as produce performance information and tuning data.

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Pixar Image Computer

Pixar Image Computer

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Pixar Image Computer
Pixar Image Computer

The Pixar Image Computer was a graphics designing computer made by Pixar in May 1986, intended for the high-end visualization markets, such as medicine. The machine sold for $135,000, but also required a $35,000 workstation from Sun Microsystems or Silicon Graphics. The original machine was well ahead of its time and generated a lot of single sales, for labs and research. However, the system did not sell in quantity. In 1987 Pixar re-designed the machine to create the P-II second generation machine (pictured at right) sold for $30,000.

In an attempt to gain a foothold in the medical market, Pixar donated ten machines to leading hospitals and sent marketing people to doctor's conventions. However, this had little effect on sales, despite the machine's ability to perform CAT scans and show perfect images of the human body. Pixar did get a contract with the manufacturer of CAT Scanners, which sold 30 machines. The terms were buy a million dollar scanner, and get a $30,000 3D visualization system. However doctors were not trained to look at 3D, and could be sued unless they looked at the individual slices, per their training. By 1988 Pixar had only sold 120 Pixar Image Computers.

In 1988, Pixar began the development of the PII-9, a nine slot version of the low cost P-II. This machine was coupled with the world's first RAID disks, a high performance bus, a hardware image decompression card, 4 processors (called Chaps or channel processors), very large memory cards (VME sized card full of memory), high resolutions video cards with 10-bit DACs which were programmable for a variety of frame rates and resolutions, and finally an overlay board which ran NeWS, and the 9 slot chassis. A full-up system was quite expensive, as the 3 GiB RAID was $300,000 alone. At this time in history most file systems could only address 2 GiB of disk. This system was aimed at high-end government imaging applications which were done by dedicated systems produced by the aeorspace industry which cost a million dollars a seat. The PII-9 and the associated software became the prototype of the next generation of commercial "low cost" workstations.

In 1990, the Pixar was defining the state-of-the-art in commercial image processing, however the government decided that the per-seat cost was still too high for mass deployment, and to wait for the next generation systems to achieve cost reductions. This decision was the catalyst for Pixar to lay off its hardware engineers and sell the imaging business. There were no high volume buyers in any industry. Less than 300 Pixar Image Computers were ever sold.

The Pixar Image computer business was sold to Vicom (not to be confused with Viacom) in 1990 for $2,000,000. Vicom filed for Chapter 11 within a year.

Many of the lessons learned from the Pixar Image Computer made it into the Low Cost Workstation (LCWS) and Commercial Analyst Workstation (CAWS) program guidelines in the early and mid '90s. The government mass deployment that drove the PII-9 development occurred in the late 1990s, in a program called Integrated Exploitation Capability (IEC).

Walt Disney Feature Animation used dozens of the Pixar Image Computers for CAPS and was using them in production up through Pocahontas in 1995.

[edit] Specifications

The P-II could have two Channel Processors, or Chaps. Each Chap is a 4-way parallel (RGBA) image computer. The chassis shown here could hold 4 cards. Another model, the PII-9, could hold 9 cards (4 Chaps, 2 video processors, 2 Off Screen Memory (OSM) cards, and an Overlay Board for NeWS, the PostScript-based windowing system. The extensions added were to control the image pipeline for roaming, image comparison, and stereo image viewing. The PII-9 was the imaging engine for a UNIX host. This was a SIMD architecture, which was good for imagery and video applications. It processed four image channels in parallel, one for red, one for green, one for blue, and one for the alpha channel (the later of which Pixar invented [citation needed]). It processed imagery in 12 bits per color channel (or 48 bits per pixel) and could output with 10 bit accuracy.

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International Computers Ltd.

International Computers Ltd.

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International Computers Ltd, or ICL, was a large British computer hardware, computer software and computer services company that operated from 1968 until 2002, when it was renamed Fujitsu Services Limited after its parent company, Fujitsu. The company's most successful product line was the ICL 2900 Series range of mainframe computers.

In later years ICL attempted to diversify its product line, but the bulk of its profits always depended on the mainframe customer base. New ventures included marketing a range of powerful IBM clones made by Fujitsu, various minicomputer and personal computer ranges, and (more successfully) a range of retail point-of-sale equipment and back-office software.

ICL was always dependent on large contracts from the UK public sector. Significant customers included Post Office Ltd, the Inland Revenue, the Department for Work and Pensions, and the Ministry of Defence.

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[edit] Origins of ICL

International Computers Ltd was formed in 1968 as a part of the Industrial Expansion Act of the Wilson Labour Government. ICL was an initiative of Tony Benn, the Minister of Technology, to create a British computer industry that could compete with major world manufacturers like IBM. ICL represented the last step in a series of mergers that had taken place in the industry since the late 1950s.

The main portions of ICL were formed by merging International Computers and Tabulators (ICT) with English Electric Computers, the latter itself a recent merger of Elliott Automation with English Electric Leo Marconi computers. EELM was itself a merger of the computer divisions of English Electric, LEO and Marconi.

On its formation the company inherited two main product lines: from ICT the ICT 1900 Series of mainframes, and from English Electric Computers (EEC) the System 4, a range of IBM-compatible mainframe clones, based on the RCA Spectra 70.

[edit] International Computers and Tabulators (ICT)

ICT was itself the result of a merger of two UK companies that had competed with each other throughout the 1930s and 1940s during the punch card era: British Tabulating Machine Company (BTM) and Powers-Samas. ICT had thus emerged with equipment that would process data encoded on punched cards - 40, 80 or 160 column cards in the case of ICT, compared to the 64 or 80 column cards used by IBM and its predecessors.

In 1962 ICT delivered the first ICT 1300 series computer which was its first transistor machine and also the first to use core memory.

In 1964 ICT purchased the computer division of Ferranti in another government-forced merger. Ferranti had been building a small number of scientific machines based on various university designs since the 1950s. None of these could be considered commercially successful, however, and Ferranti always seemed to be slow bringing its designs to market.

In 1962 a small team from Ferranti's Canadian subsidiary, Ferranti-Packard, visited the various Ferranti computer labs and saw their work on a next-generation machine. On their return home they produced the Ferranti-Packard 6000 in an astonishingly short period of time, developing the machine, compilers and an operating system (before these were common) and putting it on the market by 1963. A feature of the Executive operating system was its ability to multi task, using dynamic memory allocation enabled with a magnetic drum as an intermediate random access device. The machine went on to have some success and sold in small numbers in Canada (Saskatchewan Power Corporation retired serial number 0001 in the early 1980s) and the United States.

Meanwhile ICT management in England was looking to rejuvenate their lineup; their latest developments, the ones used to develop the FP 6000, were still not on the market. Management looked at the FP 6000 as well as licensing the RCA Spectra 70, an IBM System/360-clone. In the end it was decided to go with the FP 6000 as the basis for a small line of small-to-midrange machines. The result was the ICT 1900 series, which would eventually go on to sell into the thousands.

The 1900 Series, which derived from the Canadian Ferranti-Packard 6000, competed successfully in the UK with the IBM System/360 range from the mid 1960s to the mid 1970s. The basic design was based on a 24 bit word, divided up into 6 bit characters. Lower case and control characters were provided for by "shift" characters. The early machines (1904/1905 with hardware floating point)) were only 15 bit addressing. Later machines (1904E, 1905E, 1906A) had extended addressing modes up to 22 bits. The operating systems (Executives) were

  • E4BM - the original for the FP 6000 (known internally as the FP1)
  • E4RM - a significantly rewritten version of E4BM, with parts of the operating system overlaid to save space.
  • E6BM - A rewritten version of E4BM for the later machines with 22 bit addressing.
  • E6RM - A rewritten version of E4RM overlay software for the later machines with 22 bit addressing.

A later development was GEORGE3,[1] remembered with great affection by a generation of British programmers. The name was officially an acronym for GEneral ORGanisational Environment, but actually a tribute to George Felton, its lead designer. It consisted of two elements: an executive (E6G3) based on the older E6BM and GEORGE3 itself, a core and a much larger set of overlays. A later development was GEORGE4 (with E6G4) using the then new techniques of paged hardware. The operating software was written in assembler and a slightly higher level language called GIN, roughly analogous to the commercial ICL language PLAN. The GIN compiler was known as the Ginerator (sic).

A series of smaller machines (1901, 1902, 1903 and later 1901A, 1902A and 1903A), with their own Executives (e.g. E3RM) and George1 and George 2 operating systems, were developed by the ICL Stevenage site.

At a time (in the 1960s and 1970s) when IBM/360 series programs had to be recompiled to run in different machine and/or operating system environments, one significant feature of the 1900 series was that programs would function unaltered on any 1900 system, i.e. without the need for recompilation. Unfortunately ICT, and later ICL, was unable to capitalise on this major advantage to make significant inroads into IBM's customer base.

[edit] English Electric LEO Marconi (EELM)

During the same period of time, LEO was struggling to produce its own machines that would be able to compete with IBM. Its parent company, J. Lyons and Co., simply didn't have the financial might to develop a new line of machines. Not wanting to see its work go to waste, it sold its computer division to English Electric.

English Electric had developed a series of machines over the years, notably the famous KDF9, but never had much commercial success.

Now with serious financial backing at its disposal, the new company nevertheless decided not to come up with its own design, and instead licensed the Spectra 70 (the design ICT rejected). The result was the System 4series.

The System 4 series ran the J (for Job) operating system. This was a batch operating system, although there was a variant that allowed interactive access called MultiJob. Programming languages used were assembler and COBOL. The system was controlled from a console comprised of a mechanical printer and keyboard – very like a Teletype. The assembly language non privileged instruction set was identical to IBM System 360 Assembly Language; in privileged mode there were a few extras.

System 4's compatibility with the IBM 360 made it particularly attractive to customers in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, as the sale and installation of IBM computers (and other American technologies) there was politically sensitive and commercially restricted during the Cold War.

[edit] Leo computers

[edit] Elliott computers

The last four were 18 bit binary computers. The 900 series were commercial machines and the 920 series were built to military specification and were used in military aircraft and tanks.

[edit] ICL Locations

ICL's corporate headquarters were in Putney, London. At the time of the merger, the company inherited extensive engineering and manufacturing facilities in West Gorton (Manchester) and Stevenage (Hertfordshire) from ICT, and from English Electric in Kidsgrove (Staffordshire) and Winsford (Cheshire). The company had a large research, oprating system and superstructure development centre in Bracknell (Berkshire), application development in Reading, and training centres at Moor Hall, Cookham (Berkshire), Beaumont (Berkshire) (sales, support and software) and Letchworth (Hertfordshire) (field engineering). For some years ICL maintained a training and presentation facility for senior management at Hedsor House, near Taplow, Berkshire.

[edit] New Range

See also: ICL 2900 Series and VME

Even before the merger that created ICL was complete, a working party had recommended that the new company should develop a new range of machines offering "acceptable compatibility with the current ranges of both companies". This was also seen as a way to help "achieve company unity" for the newly-formed organization. The resulting 2900 Series was launched on 9 October 1974. Its design drew on many sources, one being the Manchester University MU5, and it is still available in the guise of the Fujitsu Trimetra. It ran the VME operating systems, and supported emulation of both the earlier architectures (1900 Series and System 4), either standalone (DME, Direct Machine Environment) or concurrently with native-mode operation (CME, Concurrent Machine Environment). In the early 1980s ICL struck a deal to acquire semiconductor technology from Fujitsu, on whom they became increasingly dependent as the years progressed. Eventually Fujitsu acquired ICL, and in 2002 the residue of the company was rebranded as Fujitsu's European services arm.

The term "New Range" was used during development for the product line that was eventually launched as the 2900 Series, the operating system being known initially as VME/B and later simply as VME.

The computer hardware included:

These ran the VME and DME (emulation) operating systems.

[edit] Series 39

Series 39 followed the same essential architecture as 2900 series, but was a dramatic step forward in hardware technology. It was the first commercial mainframe to exploit optical fibres for central interconnect, and also introduced a multi-CPU (multinode) architecture transparent to the applications.

The series included:

  • Level 30
  • Level 50
  • Level 60
  • Level 80

The training video for the series 39 featured the famous comedy duo House star Hugh Laurie and comedian Stephen Fry. ICL received the Queen's Award for Technological Achievement for the Series 39 in 1988.

[edit] Operating systems

At the inception of New Range development, two operating systems were planned: System B for the large processors, and System D for the mid-range. System B was subsequently renamed VME/B. A third operating system, System T, was subsequently targeted at small machines. System D was dropped in order to focus efforts on VME/B and System T, renamed to VME/K (Confusingly, VME/B was developed in Kidsgrove, VME/K in Bracknell.) The first large machines (the 2980 and 2970) were launched with VME/B. VME/K first saw service on the 2960.

The chief architect of VME/B was Brian Warboys, who subsequently became professor of software engineering at the University of Manchester.

VME/K development continued independently for several reasons. Early VME/B customers suffered significant performance and reliability problems, and the existence of an alternative product provided a safety net. Perhaps more significantly, VME/K was the brainchild of Ed Mack, who had been brought in by managing director Geoff Cross as ICL's head of research and development. Despite his wide responsibilities, Mack took a detailed personal interest in every aspect of VME/K design. To quote historian Martin Campbell-Kelly, "Mack had a good deal more autonomy than was good for the company." Not only was too much resource going into VME/K at the expense of the VME/B system that ICL's biggest customers were actually using, but the development of mainframe systems was also diverting expenditure from small business systems such as the 2903, whose sales were growing much more rapidly.

ICL's finances deteriorated during the late 1970s, leading to the appointment of a new management team led by Robb Wilmot and Peter Bonfield. One of their first actions was to end VME/K development. This happened just at the time that VME/K had finally reached a level of performance and reliability that made it saleable; however, the customer base was very small, and by this time VME/B (which was renamed VME 2900) had also matured sufficiently to give confidence that it would meet the future requirements for the entire mainframe range.

VME 2900 subsequently became simply VME and then Open VME, and continued to evolve. In 1980 it was marketed as "Your system for the 80s", and indeed that decade proved to be its heydey. It continued (and continues) to give service to many loyal and demanding users, but has attracted few new users since 1990 or so.

[edit] Application Superstructure software

IDMS(X) Integrated Data Management System - a Codasyl database, ported from the IDMS system developed by Cullinane (later Cullinet).
TPMS(X) Transaction Processing Management System - a Tranaction Processing monitor
DDS (X) Data Dictionary System
QuickBuild A package of tools for building applications for Series 39 mainframes built around the Data Dictionary System (DDS). [1].
Querymaster An interactive command-based query language for IDMS databases and indexed-sequential files, offering a relational view of the underlying data sources. Querymaster was based on a Ph.D research project undertaken by Andrew Hutt of ICL during a secondment to Southampton University in 1976.

[edit] Languages

S3 a system programming language derived from Algol 68, but with data types and operators aligned to those offered by the 2900 Primitive Level Interface (that is, the order code). This was used to write the VME/B operating system and much of the superstructure, such as compilers and utilities. S3 was not generally used for application-level programming.
SCL System Control Language, VME's equivalent of a job control or shell scripting language
COBOL for most business applications
Fortran
Pascal
SFL System Function Language - an assembly language. Used to write VME/K, and 2900 IDMS. Assembly language programming was positively discouraged and the assembler was not available to customers as a standard product, though it could be obtained if there were good reasons.
C C compilers only became available on VME in the mid 1980s, being needed to port relational database products such as Ingres and Oracle. Portability of C applications suffered from the assumptions made by many C programmers that characters would be encoded in ASCII and that short integers would always be 16 bits long (the 2900 architecture allows 32-bit, 64-bit, and 128-bit arithmetic, but 16-bit arithmetic has to be implemented in software and is therefore inefficient).
Application Master (AM) Batch and TP application generation from the Data Dictionary System

[edit] 2903 range

A rapid development to produce a small business computer from, as far as possible, existing hardware and software. It was urgently needed to generate a cash flow that would support continuing 2900 development. The hardware was the 2900 DFC (Disk File Controller) installed in an L-shaped piece of furniture. This contained the system, operator's console, integral printer and disk storage. The 2903 used microcode to emulate 1900 hardware. The operating system was George 1* (a modification of George 1S batch operating system) running on top of the UDAS Executive. In consequence, all the normal 1900 compilers and utilities ran on the 290x range without any changes or recompilation.

One major new facility provided on this range was Direct Data Entry, a system comprising up to eight dedicated VDU data entry stations, with which card image files which could created; these could be assigned to a program's card reader and processed accordingly.

There were three models in the range:

290x computers would run in an office environment, still quite an innovation for this class of machine, and were a runaway success. Roughly 3000 systems were sold. This was ten times as many as ICL had anticipated.

  • ME29

The smaller machines in the 290x family were replaced in about 1982 by the ME29 system.

[edit] Operating systems and Software

  • Executive

The 290x operating system, known as 'Executive', allowed the machines to be operated 'manually' via a video console. GEORGE1* ran on top of Executive to control batch processes by means of JCL (Job Control Language), which was based very closely upon the macro language of the 1900 GEORGE1S operating system.

  • TME (Transaction Machine Environment)

TME was the operating system on the ME29 and required CL (Control Language) to run jobs - 'manual' operation being discouraged.

Practically all the software packages available on the 1900 range ran on the 290x and ME29 systems.

[edit] Departmental Systems

[edit] DRS Range

For many years ICL marketed departmental computers under the 'DRS' brand, standing originally for Distributed Resource System. During the mid 80s separate Office Systems business units had produced a disparate range of products including IBM-compatible PCs such as the PWS (an AT Clone), small servers branded DRS, and various larger Unix servers sold under the Clan range. A rebranding in late 1988 pulled these together under the DRS brand, with a consistent grey and green livery.

  • DRS 20/100/200

The original DRS was the DRS 20 produced in Utica and launched in 1982. This ran the proprietary DRX (Distributed Resource Executive) operating system. The basic 'intelligent terminal' (model 10/110/210) used 8-bit 8085 processors (workstation, application and network processors), each with between 32K and 128K of memory. The Model 210 also had an 80188 application processor with 512K to run CP/M. The larger models 20 and 40 had floppy disk drives. The floor-standing models 50, 150, and 250 had hard disks, from which disk-less models booted. In early models these were 8" floppy disks, and later 5¼" disks.

The final Model 310 (styled like a DRS 300 module) had a second 80186 application processor with 1MB RAM to run Concurrent DOS, emulating an IBM PC with a Hercules screen display.

  • DRS 300

In the mid 1980s ICL developed the DRS 300 in Kidsgrove, and ran down Utica. Launched in 1986, DRS 300 was a modular system consisting of A4-sized units designed to be placed on an office bookshelf. Modules containing a power supply (Kx), processor (Ax), hard and floppy disks (Dx), streamer tape (Sx) etc were connected by SCSI. Initial models used an 8MHz 80286 processor (A2 module) or 80286 with 80287 (A3) and ran Concurrent DOS.[2] Although this could run code developed under CP/M, PC-DOS or MS-DOS, in practice available applications were limited because many shrink-wrapped packages developed for the IBM PC made use of direct access to the (IBM) hardware. This was addressed through use of softclone technology to intercept such calls[3]. However this required the continual release of patches for new application versions.

The inital DRS 300 also ran ICL's implementation of Unix System V Release 2, DRS/NX V2. Later an 80386 (A4) module was added, to run a 32-bit DRS/NX V3, based on System V Release 3.

  • DRS 400, DRS 500

These brand names were applied to bought-in Unix boxes. The DRS 400 originated as the Clan 4, based on the Motorola 68020 running UniSoft's Uniplus Unix. This was later replaced by the DRS 400E, based on the Motorola 68030 running DRS/NX V3. DRS 500 originated as the Clan 5, 6 and 7 based on the CCI Power 6/32. This was built in Irvine by CCI, which had been taken over by ICL's parent STC PLC. CCI was also the source of what became ICL's flagship OfficePower office application suite across the DRS range.

  • DRS 3000

The successor to DRS 300, the DRS 3000 was an IBM-compatible, 80486-based, floor-standing model running SVR4. The Pentium-based Level 656 was launched in September 1993.[4]

  • DRS 6000

The in-house (Irvine/Bracknell) developed DRS 6000 was launched in January 1990 as a washing machine-sized Sparc-based server, running ICL's implementation of Unix System V Release 4 (SVR4). It also had a 68020-based Central Service Module board (CSM), leading to sarcastic comments in the press that it was a DRS 400 in disguise. By 1992 there were desktop, slimline and full sized models, ranging from a single-processor desktop model rated at 29 MIPS (L240) to a 4-processor model rated at 116 MIPS (L644). Some models were sold by Fujitsu as the DS/90. ICL received the Queen's Award for Export Achievement for DRS 6000 in 1993.

In 1994 the DRS range was superseded by the SuperServer and TeamServer ranges of Sparc and Intel-based machines, running Unix or Microsoft operating systems.

[edit] Development Software

Languages on DRS20 under DRX included Microsoft BASIC, CIS-COBOL and Pascal, and application building packages including Userbuild and the Demon suite.

Languages on DRS300 Concurrent DOS included Lattice C, CBASIC, Level II COBOL and Digital Research languages including FORTRAN and Pascal.

Development software on the Unix-based DRS ranges (300 to 6000) included C, Micro Focus and RM COBOL, EPC C++, FORTRAN and Pascal, and relational databases including Ingres, Informix and Oracle.

[edit] Subsidiaries

[edit] Dataskil

Dataskil Ltd or ICL Dataskil was a software house that developed commercial programs and some utility software for the ICL marketplace.

Dataskil software products included:

  • 1900 Datadrive
  • 1900 Datafeed
  • 1900 Dataview
  • 1900 IDMS
  • 1900 Filan
  • 2900 IDH (Interactive Data Handler)
  • 2900 LP (Linear Programming)
  • 2900 OMAC
  • 2900 PERT
  • Applications Manager

Dataskil also provided Consultants to work on ICL's or direct client's projects - there were several divisions within Dataskil one of which was Consultancy Services.

The ICL 1900 Filan manual (1st edition January 1973) describes Filan as

"a totally intergrated system for the analysis of large quantities of complex data such as that collected in censuses and other surveys".

It was used to process the 1971 Indonesian Population Census (see http://www.disc.wisc.edu/INDO/indo_report.html). In the UK, Filan was used during the 1970s by OPCS (Office of Population Censuses and Surveys) to process the General Household Survey data. As there was only a small user community, ICL decided not to convert the software to run on its 2900 range of computers in the 1980s.

[edit] BARIC

This was a joint venture of International Computer Services Ltd (ICSL), a division of ICL, and Barclays Bank, that provided computer services. In the early days of computing many organizations avoided the capital costs of purchasing their own equipment and the recruitment of technical specialists by putting their work out to service companies which were then known as computer bureaux such as BARIC. This kind of business diminished during the 1980s, only to reappear in the 1990s under a new name – outsourcing. BARIC also ran special groups such as the Advanced Videotext team which looked into how new technologies such as Prestel could be leveraged. This team was based in Feltham, Middlesex.

[edit] ICIM

ICL had established a presence in India in its earliest days, through a partly-owned subsidiary International Computers India Manufacturing (ICIM). As the name implies, ICIM took on some of the manufacturing of ICL-designed equipment, generally for overseas markets. In later years ICIM, from its offices in Pune, started to establish a presence in the market for offshore software development and eventually outsourcing of the operation of computer services. ICIM subsequently became a joint operation with Fujitsu, establishing links to Japan that were as strong as its traditional links to the UK. Reflecting the shift in its business, the company was renamed ICIL (International Computers India Limited), and is now Zensar.


[edit] Corporate history

This section describes the various takeovers of and by ICL that followed the formation of ICL in 1969.

[edit] Singer Business Machines

Early in 1976 ICL acquired the international (that is, non-US) part of Singer Business Machines. Subsequently ICL also took on the development and manufacturing plant at Utica, New York. The Singer group (best known for their sewing machines) had diversified into computers and in 1970 launched the System Ten, a small business minicomputer. The acquisition shifted the geographical balance of ICL's sales away from the UK, and also gave a presence in industry markets such as retail and manufacturing. ICL subsequently developed the System Ten into the System 25, and used the product to spearhead the growth of its Retail Systems business during the 1980s.[5]

[edit] STC

On 26 July 1984 a takeover bid for ICL arrived from Sir Kenneth Corfield, head of Standard Telephones and Cables. The stated rationale was the predicted convergence of computers and telecommunications. To the bemusement of many ICL staff, Corfield also announced that he thought ICL's marketing skills would complement STC's technical strengths. The ICL board recommended acceptance of the bid, and the takeover was completed on 10 September 1984. Sir Michael Edwardes, who had been chairman for just six months, resigned; Christopher Laidlaw became Chairman, Robb Wilmot became Managing Director at the age of only 36, and Peter Bonfield Marketing director.

The merger was soon followed by a financial crisis in STC, leading to Corfield's replacement by Lord Keith as chairman, and Arthur Walsh as chief executive. Wilmot resigned, and Peter Bonfield was appointed chairman and managing director of ICL. Within a few years ICL was contributing 60% of the profits and turnover of the combined group. Bonfield was created a CBE for his role in turning the company around.

[edit] Regnecentralen

In 1989, ICL acquired Regnecentralen of Denmark, a company with a distinguished history and reputation in that country, but which was best known internationally for its front-end communications handling equipment.

[edit] Computer Consoles Inc

Also in 1989 STC acquired CCI, suppliers of ICL's Clan 5, 6 and 7 ranges (later DRS 500) and originator of OfficePower. By 1990 CCI's Computer Products Division in Irvine, California and Office Products Centre in Reston, Virginia had been transferred to ICL.[6]

[edit] Nokia Data

In 1991 ICL acquired Nokia Data, part of the Finnish Nokia Group. Nokia Data was itself the result of Nokia's mid-1980s acquisition of Ericsson Information Systems, whose origins lay in the purchase by Ericsson of the computer business of Saab, known as Datasaab. ICL's acquisition (at a price of around £250m) added 9500 employees to the company (7000 of them in Finland and Sweden), and brought with it a PC manufacturing capability, a suite of desktop software products, and more importantly a strong presence in the Nordic market and an awareness of the high-volume end of the IT market.

[edit] Fujitsu

ICL's relationship with Fujitsu started in 1981, when ICL needed a cheaper source of technology to develop lower-end machines in the 2900 range to compete with the IBM 4300 series. At this stage ICL was developing its own LSI technology for use in the higher-end machines, designed as a successor to the highly-successful 2966 processor (known internally as S3). ICL had visited a number of companies during 1980 including Fujitsu and Hitachi to identify potential suppliers.

In early 1981 ICL ran into a financial crisis, leading to a full takeover bid from Univac; but the British Government stepped in with a loan guarantee, enabling the company to stay independent. As part of this rescue agreement, Robb Wilmot arrived as CEO in May 1981.

Wilmot cancelled ICL in-house LSI technology development, and negotiated an agreement that gave access to Fujitsu's LSI and packaging technologies, which, when combined with ICL's in-house CAD capability, enabled ICL to design and manufacture the DM1 and Estriel machines, later marketed very profitably as Series 39 level 30 and 80.

Initially the collaboration with Fujitsu was presented as being an arm's length one, to avoid diluting ICL's credentials as a European and British company. However, Fujitsu's involvement with ICL at both the financial and the technical level steadily increased over the subsequent two decades, leading first to 100% ownership and subsequently to the full integration of ICL into the Fujitsu company and the dropping of the ICL brand.

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